[198] The ancient historian Aelian (c.175 c.235 AD), in his Varia Historia (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "", that could mean yellowish, reddish or brownish. Tarsos mint. [26], Suda writes that Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: , romanized: Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC - 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. [66] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. Macedon was an ancient Greek kingdom. [68] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". [275] On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. [156][157][158] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance. [309] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Writing shortly after Alexander's death, Onesicritus invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over Porus, an ancient Indian king of present-day Punjab, at the Battle of the Hydaspes. [167][169] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. [272] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. [13] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. With his death marking the start of the Hellenistic period, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. [185], Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans". [83] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. [263][264][265], Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek: ), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built. [188] Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance. [102], A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. Alexander died a mysterious death at the age of 32 in Babylon in 323 BC. . Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. Because of the visual similarity, they were also associated with the fossils shells of ancient snails and cephalopods, the latter now known . [110], When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. [284] Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier. [276] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[277] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace. According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. [283] The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals. [252], According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[253] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". [13] During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. [259], Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the Romance tradition. [47][48][49], Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. [17] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. Was it Veratrum album? [196] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. [116] However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god Sandas, worshipped at Tarsus. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. On June 10, 323 BC, Alexander the Great died of fever in Babylon after battling illness for several days. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus. [138][139] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. [204], Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant odour attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes. p. 75. Alexander the Great Pendant, Ancient Greece Necklace, Gold K14 and Silver Coin Jewelry, Greek Key Coin, History pendant, Perfect Greek Gift. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period. [144][216][243] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. [100] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. He lived a relatively short life, but his charisma was stronger than death. [56], Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Why was Alexander the Great called "the Great"? Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20. [200] Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.[201]. There he was shown the chariot of the ancient founder of the city, Gordius, with its yoke lashed to the pole by means of an intricate knot with its end hidden. [155] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. According to local customs, the setting sun was considered a symbol of ruin. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. [133], Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". [216] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. [62] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. ApieceOfGreece. [195], At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). [216] Alexander's mother Olympia similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. [102] Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians. [102] Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne". [94], Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. [75], When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. A ten-year journey to the edge of the known world, fighting barbarians and pursue eternal glory, and through all of this, Alexander was just 20 years old. [254] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. Alexander the Great was born in the Greek month of Hekatombaion. [17] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus. [102] Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III". [275] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. [103], In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. [190], Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. [88] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. He reportedly read this passage to his patron King Lysimachus, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time. He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia . [31], Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. [170], While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. [266][267], Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis. The Cutting of the Gordian Knot is an Ancient Greek legend associated with Alexander the Great in Gordium in Phrygia, regarding a complex knot that tied an oxcart. He also received news of a Thracian uprising. Greek-speaking communities in central Anatolia and in far-eastern Anatolia survived until the Greek genocide and GreekTurkish population exchanges of the early 20th century AD. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion. [76] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. Alexander the Great was an ancient king of Macedon (present-day Macedonia). [307] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[121] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. [246] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Philip II had waged war against the Thracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. The tomb of Alexander the Great is attested in several historical accounts, but its current exact location remains an enduring mystery. [297], Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no originals survive. [51], Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Among Alexander's family, "the king or ruler who ended up dying in his bed was rare," says Philip Freeman, a biographer of Alexander the Great and a classical historian at Luther College in . When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. Earlier portraits of Alexander, in heroic style, look more mature than the portraits made after his death, such as this example. GERIN Dominique, GRANDJEAN Catherine, AMANDRY Michel, DE CALLATAY Franois, La monnaie grecque, "L'Antiquit: une histoire", Ellipse, 2001. p117-119. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. [61] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. [59], News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. [261], The city of Pella, in modern Jordan, was founded by veterans of Alexander's army, and named it after the city of Pella, in Greece, which was the birthplace of Alexander. AR tetradrachm. [231] Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes;[102] however the practise of proskynesis was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered. That is the stuff that emotional leaders are made of. [105], During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. [33], As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. [224] He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. 74. [192], In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. [85], Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses". Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest. [199][198] Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death. [23][26][27][28] This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. [311], In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khalji stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great). [54] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes. [262], In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19. (a symbol associated with Alexander), which is now in the . Alexander then led the League of Corinth, and used his authority to launch the pan-Hellenic project envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all Greeks in their conquest of Persia.[5][6]. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC. Details from the Alexander Sarcophagus show that he had a fair complexion with ruddy cheeks. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[87]. [80] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes. It included: The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded. [196] In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. [161], Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. [35] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. [275] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[278] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. [191] This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. [117] The silver coinage had a beardless head of Heracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse. [79] To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis. (721) 404.30 NOK. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. He ascended the throne around age twenty. Alexander was the first king to wear the royal diadem, a band of cloth tied around the hair that was to become the symbol of Hellenistic kingship. Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic, Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia. Stories about his interest in animals are well known too. ", Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, ", Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, pp 158. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. ISBN 1-84176-091-9. [286], Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods. [295] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". [106] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. [17], Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. [14] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. pp. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, Dium. In the winter of 327/326BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of the Kunar Valley, the Guraeans of the Guraeus Valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner Valleys. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins.
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